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Be the first to start one ». Goodreads is hiring! If you like books and love to build cool products, we may be looking for you. The PC has a serial port with nine or 25 contacts. UART and read or transmit data. In the case of a serial interface, like the parallel interface, data is transferred to the bus interface, and from there to the LJART, in units of one byte. This stream is transmitted via a single data line, not eight as is the case for the parallel interface.
Moreover, the UART adds additional bits, if necessary: start, stop and parity bits. A data packet consisting of eight data bits and the additional UART control bits is thus formed.
The number of signal changes per second is called the baud rate. The parity bit serves as a simple validity check for the transmitted data. In this way, much longer distances compared to the parallel interface are possible up to m without signal amplification.
Moreover, the cable between the serial interface and any peripheral is more convenient, as only one data line is present. However, the transfer rate is therefore lower in a PC up to baud.
Unlike connection via the parallel interface, no synchronization signal is transmitted. Serial interfaces in PCs conform to the RSC standard, which defines the layout and meaning of the connections, and which requires 25 contacts.
However, serial interfaces in PCs only occupy 14 at most, even if the corresponding plug has 25 pins. Additionally, a reduced version with only nine pins exists, but this is sufficient only for use in PCs defined by IBM. Note that the contacts on the reverse of the interface adapter card are, unlike the parallel interface, formed into a plug that is, there are pins, not holes.
You can thus easily tell serial and parallel inter- faces apart. One feature of UART, and therefore of the serial interface, is that the transmission and reception of data may take place asynchronously. Afterwards, it tells the processor that data has been received and is to be transferred to the CPU. If you connect a modem to your serial interface also called the communications inferface, COM , you can exchange data with other computers of any size via the public telephone or data networks your friends PC, or the com- puting centre of a database service provider, for example.
The UART converts it into a serial bit stream and transfers the stream to the modem. In the modem a carrier signal is modulated and transmitted via the telephone network and satellite to another modem, which is connected to the destination computer. If that computer is to supply data to your PC, the process works in the opposite direction.
This only works, of course, if the transmission parameters baud rate, number and values of start, stop and parity bits of your serial interface and the destination computer coincide. Because data reception may take place asynchronously that is, the UART need not know that data is arriving at Ol GMT , a communications program may run in the background.
There- fore, you may, for example, input text while your PC is transmitting a message or receiving an image. Using the serial interface, a simple local area network can be made to exchange small amounts of data among several PCs. I should mention that a serial interface often connects a mouse, trackball or a joystick to the PC.
If the user changes the position of these devices they output a serial data stream to the UART, like a modem. Because of the rather long distances compared to the parallel interface that can be spanned with a serial interface,.
Nevertheless, the data trans- mission is very reliable, especially at low baud rates. This led to typically only one computer being present in an office, and much work was done manually or with a typewriter. Problems of data exchange could not arise because all data was managed on this single computer.
As the price of PC hardware rapidly decreased and very powerful programs for word processing, databases, etc. According to Figure 1. Moreover, the data cannot be managed centrally, resulting in data chaos. As a pure typewriter, a PC is far too good. Instead, its use for data processing and data exchange with other PCs is unavoidable. For this reason, local orea networks LANs are being used more and more. As the name implies, computers are networked locally within a room, building or area so that data text files, database records, sales numbers, etc.
Figure 2. LANs are locally bounded. The central part of a LAN is a semer, which manages all the common data of all the network nodes, and establishes connections to peripherals or other computers. Computers are thus networked over long distances, for instance, the new passenger booking system AMADEUS with which you can reserve airline tickets all over the world.
On the server, all data which is accessible by more than one user is managed centrally. For this, the server has a high-capacity hard disk drive on which to hold all the data. Via cables and network adapters, data may be transferred from the server to the tletnodes, that is, the PCs connected to the server, and vice versa. Moreover, a data exchange among the individual netnodes is also possible.
Therefore, it is no longer necessary to copy the data onto a floppy disk, carry the floppy disk to the destination PC, and restore the data there. With a network, data can be transmitted from your workstation to one or more destinations, as over a pneumatic dispatch system. You can also fetch data from another netnode via the server. A further advantage is that on the server, all common data is managed centrally and is backed up in one go there.
Your personal data stock is at your disposal on your own PC. Therefore, a maximum of data security by central management and backup and, on the other hand, a maximum of flexibility, is possible.
Usually, all netmembers share one or more printers so that considerable savings are possible, and the printer works to capacity. You may also exchange data via the server, so only one telephone line is required. Like a controller see Figure 1. Like any other extension adapter card graphics adapter, controller , the network adapter may be inserted into any free bus slot. The network interface depends on the network used, e.
Ethernet or Token Ring. The network now transfers the data to the intended computer server or netnode. The CPU interrupts the ongoing process the calculation of a mathematical expression, for example , carries out the requested enquiry, and then restarts the interrupted process. If the bus interface for a PC on the network adapter card is replaced by an interface for another kind of computer a UNIX machine, for example and you insert this newly set up adapter card in the other computer, very different computers may be networked.
Any computer can thus be accessed via a network adapter, as is the case with a serial interface and a modem. Because network adapters are much more powerful the data throughput is up to times higher , the data is much faster.
From the previous sections you can see that a PC may be equipped with an endless variety of expansion adapters such as graphics adapters, hard disk controllers, interfaces, etc. At power-up, all drives and components must be initialized, that is, set to a defined start-up state.
You can imagine that there is a significant difference as to whether a 10 Mbytes or Mbytes hard disk drive, or a main memory with kbytes or 32 Mbytes, is present at initialization. At power-up, the processor reads the switch positions and determines which drives are installed and how much main memory is available.
Because these switches are located on the motherboard, they are often hidden by expansion adapter cards, so it is difficult to make new settings. On adapter cards or the motherboard you often find small DIP switches.
These are used to configure the adapter card or the motherboard. The feature of this chip is that it needs relatively little power compared with other memory chips. I I Figure 1. When the PC is switched off or even unplugged this clock is powered by the battery or accumulator, and is therefore able to update time and data independently.
The keyboard has remained the most important input device despite advances in graphics- oriented user shells such as Windows or SAA standards. This supervises the so-called scan matrix of the keyboard, which is made up of. At the crossing points, small switches are located, and on every switch a key is fixed. If you press a key the switch closes a contact between the crossing lines of the scan matrix.
Now the microprocessor can determine the coord- inates of the pressed switch, and therefore the activated key. This is done in the form of a scnn code, which is transmitted via a buffer to the keyboard interface on the motherboard; thus the CPU knows which key has been pressed. Conversion of the scan code into the corresponding character letter A in Figure 1.
Using this method, a lot of different keyboard layouts may be realized: without needing to change the keyboard hardware, and especially the scan matrix, keyboards for various languages can be realized simply by adjusting the keyboard driver for the language concerned. You can see the kqboard chip, the scan matrix and the small switches at the crossings of the matrix.
The characters are tratlsferred to the keyboard interface on the motherboard. Programmable keyboards can also receive data from the motherboard. With the advance of graphic-oriented user shells, so-called pointing devices have become more important. For the operation of many programs Windows they are very useful or even neces- sary for example, AutoCAD.
The oldest pointing device is the mouse, so called because of its plump body and long tail. Usually, a mouse is connected to the serial interface of the PC, but there are versions with their own adapter card for a bus slot, so-called bus mice.
Originally, Microsoft planned three buttons for the mouse, but only two were used. Well-known compatible mice are manufactured by Genius, Logitech and other companies. The mouse is of no use on its own: to move the meuse pointer usually an arrow or rectangle on- screen , every mouse needs like the trackball or tablet a program called a mouse driver. This converts the signals from the mouse into commands for the CPU on the motherboard.
The CPU then drives the graphics adapter so that the pointer is actually moved. As you may already have seen from looking at the outside, the mouse includes a ball coated with plastic or rubber. The ball is in contact with two small rollers. When you move the mouse the ball is rotated, and the movement transmitted to the rollers. At the other end of the roller axis a disk with small holes located at regular distances is fixed.
On both sides of the disk there is a transmitter and a receiver photosensor assembly. When the rollers are rotated by the ball, the disk interrupts the photosensor assembly and opens it, depending on whether a hole in the disk is located between the transmitter and receiver of the photosensor assembly.
The number of such interruptions is proportional to the number of ball rotations, and therefore to the distance the mouse is moved. These describe the number of interruptions and openings of the Photosensor assembly for both disks, thus the mouse knows exactly how far it has been moved.
NOW the values are transmitted via the cable to the serial interface, which then transfers the values received to the CPU. The receiver is connected to the serial interface or an adapter card. Moreover, optical mice have recently come onto the market.
This conversion is rather complicated, and requires more expensive electronic equipment, therefore optical mice are, unfortunately, far more expensive than mechanical ones. If you put a mouse onto its back,, you virtually get a trackball.
Actually, the interior of a trackball is very similar to that of a mouse, but in general the ball is considerably larger. You can rotate this ball in different directions with your fingers, and thus move the mouse pointer on the screen. In some keyboards and notebooks the trackball has already been integrated. For professional CAD and graphics applications a tablet is recom- mended. Here, conversion of the tracking movement into pointer movement on-screen is executed purely by electronics.
Below the surface of the tablet there is a matrix made of wires through which run current pulses. These pulses are detected by a magnifying glass and delivered to the PC. The advantage of this matrix is the very high resolution. A high-quality mouse reaches up to dots per inch dpi ; a tablet, on the other hand, reaches dpi.
Because the CPU knows exactly where each pulse is at what time, the CPU can determine the exact position of the magnifying glass on the tablet using the time at which the magnifying glass supplies a pulse. Unlike the mouse, which may be placed anywhere on the desk and only returns the direction and the amount of its movement, the tablet returns the absolute position or coordinates. Usually, a tablet is divided into a central part, which serves as a drawing area, and a peripheral part, where symbol fields are located.
The symbol fields depend on the application AutoCAD, for example. If you click on a point in the drawing area, AutoCAD draws a point. If, on the other hand, you click a symbol field in the peripheral area, AutoCAD executes a certain command which is symbolized by the field.
There are further pointing devices such as the joystick, with which you may move a pointer on-screen similar to the mouse. Another, older pointing device is the so-called light pen. The light pen works in a similar way to a tablet, but here no electrical pulses run through a wire matrix. Instead, the light pen detects the light-up of the screen at that position where the electron beam of the monitor hits the screen surface.
Therefore, the light pen or better, the graphics adapter can determine its location line, column on the screen. As a user, you do not recognize the light-up as the eye is too slow. Another pointing device is the touchpad: here, the movement of your finger over the touch-sensitive surface of the pad is converted into a corresponding cursor movement on the screen. Touchpads are often used for notebooks because they are very space-saving but work precisely.
Of course, the components described above have to be supplied with energy in some way. Therefore, the power supply is explained here in brief. Depending on the computer manufacturer, there are many different shapes, of course. Usually, the power supply has one or two plugs for the motherboard, through which the motherboard is supplied with the necessary power.
Adapter cards connected and inserted into the bus slots are usually supplied via the bus slots. Because the floppy and hard disk drives require far more current power dissipation of lo W each , the power supply additionally has up to four equal wire groups with appropriate plugs for the drives. Power supplies also include a thin wire with a further plug for the motherboard, through which the so-called power- good signal is transmitted to an electronic switch on the motherboard. The signal indicates that all necessary voltages are stable after power-up.
A low voltage may lead to undefined states in initialization of the memory chips or the CPU, and therefore to disastrous failures. Thus, the electronic switch releases the 80x86 processor only if the power supply signals a stable voltage with the power-good signal. Some power supplies also include a socket for inserting the monitor power cable, but bigger monitors with a correspond- ingly higher power dissipation are usually plugged into their own socket.
Therefore, you should make sure that you invest in an additional user manual, besides all the DOS manuals, which covers the following information:. IBM and some other manufacturers usually deliver such a manual along with their products, but with most of the cheaper products you rarely get any technical information about what you are buying.
Also, some howlers seem to be unavoidable when translating manuals from Chinese into English. Also, dig a little deeper when you are buying expansion devices another hard disk, more powerful graphics adapter, etc. For example, interface adapter cards installed later have to be configured according to the number and type of the previously installed adapters.
Without documentation you will not be able to locate the jumpers for the configuration setting. Further, the manual should include information on diagnostics software. This may detect the reason for failure in the case of technical failures and, for example, checks whether the hard disk controller is working correctly.
A technical reference is beyond the scope of a user manual. In a technical reference, details are listed in varying degrees of quality that are of interest to programmers, for example. Only renowned PC manufacturers deliver such a technical reference, though, unfortunately, you may often only understand its contents when you already know the facts.
Personal computers are sensitive devices. A glass of orange juice tipped over the keyboard makes all the keys sticky. If such a mishap has happened, switch off the PC immediately and remove the liquid straight away with absorbent fabric.
Rinse with distilled water if necessary. Put on an earthing bracelet when opening the case see Section 1. This, of course, also holds if you want to insert memory chips, for example. Avoid touching the connections and pins as far as possible.
If you want to ship your PC, use the head parking of your hard disk drive. Today, nearly all hard disk drives have an autopark function, where the heads are automatically moved to a safe parking location upon power-down.
Whether your hard disk drive implements such a function and which precautions have to be taken should be listed in the user manual.
These programs are usually called something like ,tmrk. Call the appropriate program in advance of each move. If necessary, you can use an unused floppy disk instead of cardboard. Handle all floppies with care. Labels must be written before they are stuck onto the envelope. If the label is already stuck on the floppy disk, only use a felt pen, never a ballpoint pen, as the hard steel ball damages the surface of the disk.
Never touch this magnetic surface as dust and fat particles may be deposited and damage the surface, thus destroying the data. If you move it aside, the floppy disk is exposed. In this case, never touch the surface.
This may have disastrous consequences. Like all other preventive actions, data backup is tiresome, and the catastrophe may possibly never happen.
A complete loss may lead directly to ruin, or at least several months of data recovery. For small amounts of information, floppy disks are adequate, but large amounts of data should be managed centrally and periodically backed up by a powerful backup system, such as a streamer with appropriate software.
Attention should also be given to some rare dangers such as fire. All the backup copies in the office are of no value if they burn along with the original data, or if they are destroyed by water damage. Therefore, important information should not only be backed up regularly, but also stored in another safe place. These hints, incidentally, evolve from experience. Besides physical data damage by fire, wear or negligence , logical damage may also arise.
This is the product of incorrectly working hardware, user faults or malicious damage. Some viruses are very dangerous and may destroy all your data within a few seconds. If you are only using licensed software from respectable suppliers, the probabil- ity of infecting your computer with a virus is very low. Even so, in this case backups and some expert knowledge are usually enough to restore the data.
The previous sections demonstrate that a PC may include a multitude of hardware components. In most cases, a user is not interested in all the details of their hard disk drive and how it is controlled by the hard disk controller. Characteristic of high-level languages are commands adapted to human thinking, which may be used for searching and opening files and transferring parts records of them into memory.
Skilful programming of the application hides this process behind a menu entry like open file. One main feature of high- level languages is that they are portable, meaning that Pascal on a PC scarcely differs from Pascal on a supercomputer the hardware is very different, of course. This is possible because an operating system here DOS supplies certain functions that make up the interface to the drives and the data on the volume.
Instead, the operating system returns the requested data to the application and therefore to the user after a system call here a command to DOS. Moreover, the operating system allows input and output of data through the parallel and serial interfaces, and displays text and graphics on the screen. It man- ages main memory and allocates part of it to application programs. Therefore, the system controls and supervises the operation of the whole computer.
In a mainframe, the operating system also controls the computer, allocates memory, processor and other system elements to application programs, etc. All of these tasks are carried out by DOS in the background. Instead, the input mask or shell of the application program is loaded immediately.
The prompt, as well as the internal DOS commands are, in fact, part of the command interpreter or user shell. The arealn DOS with its interfaces to hardware and the management of memory, interfaces, etc.
Microsoft calls them IO. The lowest, and therefore the most hardware-oriented, level is IO. Here the routines for accessing the BIOS and registers are located. User Hans-Peter Messmer. On the left are showtt the diffPrent access levels between user and hardware. The top level is the application, which is the interface to the user. The bottom level is the registers that directly control the hnrdware. These instructions are converted into a command sequence for IO. SYS part. Thus, the manufacturers of PCs have the opportunity to choose different technical solutions.
By adapting IO. SYS converts all instructions into correct commands for the different hardware. However, the passion of the Taiwanese for copying has made the adapta- tion of IO. SYS unnecessary, as at least Therefore, no different registers or additional instructions are needed. For a user, the command interpreter is of great importance. Within the command interpreter the so-called internal DOS commands are incorporated.
COM executes an internal routine which, for example, executes a system call to read the directory of the floppy or hard disk. Unlike IO. They are located in the root directory as hidden files.
With a suitable utility such as Norton Utilities or PCTools which locates hidden files, you should be able to track them down.
In turn, the BIOS accesses the hardware by so-called registers. Registers are certain interfaces that are directly assigned to hardware. Commands that directly control the hardware operation are placed in registers. For example, the DMA chip, timer chip, graphics controller chip and drive controllers are accessed via registers.
By using appropriate values, data exchange, the sound of a certain frequency, or various line frequencies on the monitor may be set. The address, size and meaning of the registers are, of course, largely dependent on the hardware. The job of the BIOS is to convert a defined function call into a corresponding com- mand sequence for the registers concerned. Thus, the hierarchical concept of Figure 1. That the internal conversion of the menu item open file is very different for these two cases seems to be natural.
As can be seen from Figure 1. In a PC with DOS this is not critical, because you are always working alone and only one application is running at a time. DOS is a singletasking operating system. PRINT prints files. PRINT intercepts this interrupt to activate itself for a certain self-defined time period. In contrast, with a multitasking operating system, all the J applications residing in memory are activated by the operating system for a time period defined by the system.
In this case, there may be events running in the computer that are not controlled by and therefore hidden from the operating system. This means that for all I programs including the operating system only kbytes are available at most. The reason ; is not some problem with space for memory chips or that memory is very expensive above 1 kbytes, but the memory organization defined by the designers of DOS see Figure 1.
COM overlaps with the application program area. COM is divided into two parts: the resident part holds the routines that are, for example, necessary to load the transient part after completion or abortion of an I application; the transient part holds the internal commands like DIR and COPY that are not necessary during execution of the application program, and which thus may be overwritten.
With DOS the first kbytes are reserved for the operating system and application programs. Above 1 Mbyte extended memory starts, which can be up to 4 Gbyte on an i, i or Pentium. Starting with DOS 4. Above the kbyte boundary are the kbytes of the video RAM see also Figure 1.
The next kbytes are reserved for BIOS extensions on graphics adapters and controllers see also Figures 1. All memory areas in total give a memory of 1 Mbyte. Therefore, an address space the number of addressable bytes of 1 Mbyte was assumed and divided in the way described above.
This separation was completely arbitrary, but you should notice that the first PC was delivered with 64 kbytes! The reservation of the lower kbytes for application programs and DOS with 16 kbytes at that time seemed as if it would be enough to last for decades. The designers of DOS were caught completely unawares by later developments in computing, and therefore we are now struggling with this kbyte boundary in the era of cheap and high-capacity memory chips.
Maln Components Inparticular, it is worth noting that the individual areas of the memory organization need not be completely filled.
For example, it is possible to limit the main memory the reserved lower kbytes to kbytes instead of using the full kbytes. The CPU may not be able to access the corresponding memory chips, therefore all DOS programs are limited to a size of kbytes less the memory area occupied by the system.
Meanwhile DOS, together with all its drivers for printer, screen, mouse, etc. Version 5. The ultimate quantity of memory is formed by the so-called upper memory blocks LIMB between kbytes and 1 Mbyte. The user must explicitly supply the ranges of already occupied address regions. In the application area, the called program is stored and may itself request memory for its own purposes, for example to load a text file into memory.
This means that the application has to inform DOS how much memory is needed for the text file, and DOS assigns it to the application. That is the reason why some programs display the message Not enough memory! But this only works in the so-called protected mode. This advanced protected mode is wholly incompatible with DOS. To retain compatibility, even the i, i and Pentium are operated in renl mode.
Here they can only address 1 Mbyte of memory, even though 32 address lines are present. Therefore, PCs with i, i or Pentium processors are also subject to the kbyte boundary for application programs.
Switching between real and protected mode is possible to allow access to extended memory for at least a certain time. Another possibility is that a 64 kbyte region of memory may be inserted into free memory above the kbyte boundary into a hole in the address space ; this region constitutes a so-called roindouj into a much larger memory UP to 8 Mbytes.
This large memory is called expanded memory, or EMS memory. Details about real and protected mode, as well as extended and expanded memory, are given later.
Part 2 Processor and Memory. The processor and memory, together with the support chips, are usually the main components of the motherboard. It is these components that make up the actual computer.
Important units such as hard disk drives and interfaces are already known as peripherals. Before the integration of a million elements on a finger-nail sized chip was possible, the «motherboard» occupied a whole room!
Accordingly, the coprocessors are called 80x87 in general, and , and specifically. After releasing the chip, Intel changed this naming convention slightly. Now the CPUs are denoted as i or for short , i, etc. In the processor, data processing takes place, which requires at least a minimum of intelligence.
Al1 other, sometimes rather complicated, chips are simply slaves of the processor which, together with the memory chips, is one of the highest integrated elements in a PC. They are the 80x86 family from Intel and the series from Motorola. But let us first turn to the unavoidable basics for understanding these seemingly very intelligent chips. It is small and easy to manufacture, yet has a very.
This difference is entirely converted into heat, and heats up the circuit. Note that it is not primarily a high current that destroys the circuit, but the heating caused by an excessively high current which burns the elements. Circuit Diagram '0 '0.
J - l Ji tpi f ;n'l The characteristics of n-channel sud p-channel transistors nre complementay fo ench other.
A field-effect trnnsistor comprises two dopcd regions called sauce and drain in n lightly doped slrbstrote. The conductivity of the channel between source and drnin is altered by means of the gnte voltnge.
The distance between source and drain in an IC is usually about 0. P-doping means that the substrate accommodates more positively charged ions than negatively charged electrons as charge carriers for the current flow inside the substrate. This is achieved by implanting irnpzrrities. These atoms have less p-doping with boron, etc. Between the two regions the so-called charlnel is located. Reading from top to bottom, the layer sequence reads metal-oxide-semiconductor; that is where the name MOS transistor comes from.
If a control voltage is applied to the gate, free charge carriers arise through something like a «sucking effect». The higher the voltage, the more charge carriers are available, that is, the lower is the resistance of the channel.
Note that tran- sistor is the abbreviation of trunsfer resistor. If a voltage Uos is applied between the source and drain, then the current 1, fand therefore also the voltage output by the MOSFET is govemed by the gate voltage. The current flow does not start until the threshold voltage V,, has been exceeded. A significant difference between them is the opposite course of the conductivity with the voltage U,, between the gate and source: a rising U,, means a rise in conductivity for an n-channel MOSFET, but a decline of the conductivity for a p-channel MOSFET to zero.
Pictorially, the gate voltage drives the charge carriers out of the channel and thus increases its resistance. According to individual characteristics, it is apparent that from the threshold voltage Vth up to the saturation voltage V,,, a linear dependency between the applied voltage and the current through the MOSFET and therefore the voltage output by the MOSFET appears.
This is, for example, the case for a radio or TV receiver. Here an indefinite number of intermediate levels between minimum and maximum values minimum and maximum loudness of music, for example is possible. But because the current through the MOSFET and thus its resistance can only be determined down to a certain finite precision, the intermediate levels are smudged.
Therefore, no exact value of an intermediate leve1 can be indicated, only its range. Here the voltage U,, between the gate and source is either below or in the region of the threshold voltage V,, or above or in the region of the saturation voltage V,,. Thus, two stable and unambiguous states of the transistor are defined: the off- and on-states, respectively. In the off- state, the MOSFET is completely turned off has an indefinite resistance value , and a maximum voltage occurs between the source and the drain.
In the on-state, the MOSFET leads the max- imum current has a resistance value of zero and the voltage between the source and drain is minimal equal to the threshold voltage V,h. With two clearly defined and distinguishable switching positions and therefore output currents and voltages , we get digital circuits with dual or binary that is, two-valued logic.
To complete the picture, 1 want to mention that in very fast circuits supercomputers, for example a substrate made of gallium-arsenide GaAs instead of silicon is used. However, this is achieved with the disadvantage of having a power consumption three times that of a pure CMOS circuit.
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